R. Pomeroy.

Environmental education, capacity development and social communication (ECB) are integral parts of community organizing. The environmental education, capacity development and social communication activities can come before or at the same time as the other community organizing activities. However, due to their importance, they will be discussed separately from the other community organizing activities.

8.1. Environmental Education, Capacity Development and Social Communication

The issues of community-based co-management are generally complex and there is a need to promote environmental awareness in the community and to develop people's capacity to actively participate in the co-management programme. This includes the capacity of community members, as well as government officials and staff. (Throughout this section it should be kept in mind that the education and training of government officials and staff is as, if not more, important than that of community members.) The purpose of environmental education, capacity development and social communication is to empower people with knowledge and skills in order that they can actively participate in the community-based co-management programme, begin to take greater control over resource and economic and social problems and needs, negotiate a fair agreement, and increase their awareness and understanding of fisheries resources and their management. Through ECB, community members and government officials and staff are able to better understand the need for co-management, the approaches to co-management, and their individual and collective roles in co-management (Table 8.1). In some cases, the community and government may need to be convinced of the need to protect and manage their own resources and for co-management. While ECB is a continuing activity throughout the co-management programme, it should be noted that it is important to start the ECB activities as soon as possible in order to empower people with knowledge and skills so that they can actively participate in the co-management programme.

Activities aimed at increasing awareness, knowledge, skills and institutional capacity, such as environmental education, capacity development and social communication, are sometimes taken together under the term 'social preparation'. Social preparation has several functions in co-management:

• Reducing social conflict and resource impacts;

• Creating positive change in values and behaviour towards the environment;

• Gaining support for co-management;

• Increasing knowledge and skills of fishers and other stakeholders;

• Fostering participation in community-based co-management;

• Enabling community members to assert their rights to use and manage its resources.

The ultimate goal of social preparation is to achieve behaviour and attitude changes so that resource use and management and the co-management programme can be sustainable. Social preparation is focused on building a constituency for co-management through a critical mass of people in the community who are environmentally literate, imbued with environmental ethics, shared responsibilities, and shared actions towards the sustainable management of aquatic resources (DENR et al., 2001b).

It should be noted that social preparation activities alone will not cause people to change unsustainable practices and behaviour. There need to be several actions operating concurrently, such as changed community values, availability of alternative behaviours, and possible sanctions for unsustainable activities.

8.2. ECB Activities

Environmental education, capacity development and social communication are individually distinct but complementary activities.

Environmental education introduces environmental concepts and principles related to coastal and aquatic resource issues, and empowers the community with information and knowledge in order to take the appropriate action to address the issues. The success of aquatic resource management depends on the level of the community's awareness and knowledge of their coastal and aquatic environment. Environmental education activities are directed towards the development and enhancement of resource management capabilities of individuals and organizations through formal and non-formal education and skills development training (Juinio-Menez et al., 2000). Environmental education can build consensus, clarify perspectives and interests about issues, generate a receptive context for change, get people to help carry out activities, help monitor change and create a long-term commitment in the community.

Capacity development provides skills and institutional capacity for fishers, resource user organizations, local-level government officials and staff, and other stakeholders to take an active role in co-management. Capacity building often implies that activities are carefully planned and executed, and that they follow a clear plan. In reality, capacity building often involves more experimentation and learning. For this reason, the term capacity development, which implies an organic process of growth and development, is more appropriate than capacity building (Horton, 2002). Capacity development can be defined as

the process by which individuals, groups, organizations, institutions and societies increase their abilities to: (1) perform core functions, solve problems, define and achieve desired objectives over time; and (2) understand and deal with their development needs in a broad context and in a sustainable manner.

(UNDP, 1998)

This definition highlights two important points: (i) that capacity development is largely an internal process of growth and development, and (ii) that capacity development efforts should be results-oriented.

Local capacity is built in order to:

• Make local resource users, groups and organizations, fishing communities and the local government unit charged with fisheries management more capable of performing this task;

• Make local resource users, their organization leaders, local government officials and staff, and other stakeholders able to undertake their roles and responsibilities in co-management;

• Improve the quality of fisheries management taking place at the community level.

Social communication generates an on-going flow of information and dialogue between the CO and the community members, and among the community members themselves in order to have informed decision-making and to face change. Social communication initiatives can promote social discussions about problems, opportunities and alternative courses of action, including co-management, for the community. Social communication initiatives are very different from education initiatives. They do not merely aim at 'passing on a message about an issue' but at promoting its critical understanding and appropriation in society (Borrini-Feyerabend et al., 2000).

ECB activities should involve as many of the sectors of the community, including government, as possible in order to build up a critical mass of local people with a common understanding of co-management and aquatic resource management. Efforts should be focused on cultivating potential local resource persons who could effectively conduct ECB activities on their own (e.g. local teachers to their students and other teachers) and in the process disseminate information to even more members of the community, leading to the greatest positive impact in the shortest period of time (Juinio-Menez et al., 2000). It is important to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of ECB activities, including changes in the community's attitude to the need for co-management.

8.3. Environmental Education

Environmental education is a critical ingredient in the transformation of community members into active partners in co-management. Environmental education empowers people and improves their environmental awareness through knowledge (Boxes 8.1 and 8.2). The effectiveness of environmental education activities is manifested through:

• Concrete action taken by local co-management advocates towards various resource management issues and dissemination of information to a greater number of community members;

• Direct participation of local communities in concrete co-management initiatives such as planning, implementation and monitoring (Juinio-Menez et al., 2000).

8.3.1. The environmental education plan

An environmental education programme should be based on a plan that ensures that environmental education activities have a connection to the community and its goals for sustainability, emphasize the link between local resource-use activities and the quality of the environment, and ensure that it is relevant to people's lives. Too often, environmental education is not targeted at groups in the community who are most important in resource use and management and in participation. The plan should consider the issues and needs of the whole community (Boxes 8.3 and 8.4). Environmental education activities should be developed collaboratively among the community, external agent and government. The educational needs from the community's perspective may be different from the perspective of the external agent.

Training needs analysis should be conducted through questionnaires or by interviewing community members to determine the appropriate topics, inputs and methods for the training. Decisions about the selection of topics, planning and implementation of training activities should be made with all partners. The environmental education programme should be based on accurate local information. The Resource and Environmental Assessment, Socio-economic Assessment, Legal and Institutional Assessment and Problems, Needs and Opportunities Assessment all provide this type of information for the formulation of an environmental education plan (see Chapter 7).

For the environmental education programme (or capacity building and social communication), it is important to develop criteria for success, as well as mechanisms for monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of environmental education programmes, including changes in the community's attitude to the need for resource conservation and co-management. Often resistance or outright opposition to participation is a useful indicator that the co-management arrangements being developed are not going to meet the perceived needs of the people in their present form. Instead of being taken as failure, this can be a cause for the effort to find out the reasons for the resistance to participation. This should then lead to a review of the environmental education activities and possibly also a re-examination and redesign of programme objectives (Claridge, 1998).

Conversely, it is always a good idea to seek clarification of why communities, or groups within communities, are willing to participate. Their motives may not, for example, always be consistent with the sustainable resource management objective of the programme. Even in the usual situation of motivation through a desire for sustainable development, understanding the motivation of participants can provide a guide to ways in which involvement can be increased. Again, the environmental education programme activities are closely linked to community attitudes and any perceived problems with motivation should feed back into the contents and methodology of the environmental education programme (Claridge, 1998).

8.3.2. Entry level approaches

Environmental education activities start in the community entry and integration phase of the co-management programme. The target groups at this early stage include potential leaders, key informants and government staff in the community who are showing an active interest in the process and who could disseminate information to others. The activities are non-formal and may include one-on-one and small group discussions about environmental issues in the community (Boxes 8.5, 8.6 and 8.7). The environmental education activities involve deepening awareness of the target groups about environmental issues and possible solutions (Juinio-Menez et al., 2000).

In addition to community members, government staff at local levels will possibly need environmental education (as well as capacity building and social communication). This can sometimes cause difficulties as government staff may not be willing to admit their lack of knowledge or to put effort into learning about community groups they may feel to be ignorant or uneducated. It may be necessary, in some cases, to have separate training for government staff or to use alternatives to conventional 'classroom'-type training. An alternative may be an exchange visit to an area with successful co-management or on-the-job training. It may be useful to involve community members in training activities in order to show their knowledge, especially if field-type training is used (Claridge, 1998).

8.3.3. Training

The primary method of environmental education is training. Training may involve formal (training sessions, workshops, lectures) and non-formal (small groups, exchange visits, peer-to-peer discussion, plays, one-on-one contact) educational methods. Training needs to be a continuous process throughout the programme.

A variety of environmental education training modules can be prepared (Box 8.8). Juinio-Menez et al. (2000) have identified seven training modules:

1. Marine Environmental Situationer. This module provides an overview of the current situation of the marine environment and its related resources. Environmental, socio-economic and sociopolitical factors are discussed to provide the participants with a holistic view of the issues and to enable them to realize the complexity of marine environment management. The common causes of environmental problems are also briefly discussed. The preparation of a local situationer is intended to heighten the awareness of the participants on local marine environmental issues and motivate them to initiate environmental management actions in their locality.

2. Basic Marine Ecology. This module introduces several basic ecological concepts and processes. Understanding these concepts is a requisite for identifying and discussing the different ecosystems found in the country. The features and characteristics of the marine environment are likewise discussed to enhance the participant's appreciation of the complexity of this environment. Connectivities of the different coastal ecosystems are presented to contextualize the need for the integrated management of those ecosystems. Integration of local knowledge and perceptions regarding the natural resources are emphasized.

3. Marine Biodiversity. This module discusses the diversity of the marine environment. The components of biological diversity are discussed to give the participants an understanding of the importance of biodiversity. The exceptional diversity of individual coastal ecosystems is discussed to encourage the participants to initiate coastal resource management in their own areas.

4. Sustainable Use of Natural Resources. This module discusses the concept of carrying capacity and emphasizes that the earth's resources are finite and that Mother Nature has set natural limits to maintain ecological balance. Some causes of environmental problems are mentioned so that the participants may relate their personal activities to the observed environmental problems. The module explores the different possibilities by which the participants can determine how they can contribute to the sustainable management of their coastal zone.

5. Resource Management Options. This module provides an overview of the different options available for marine resources and ecosystems management. Fishery regulation, environmental intervention and community-based approaches are discussed to facilitate the identification by the participants of the different environmental issues facing them and of the possible courses of action that they can take. By the end of the session the participants should already have an idea about which local environmental issues they will prioritize and what management options to implement.

6. Marine Protected Areas. This module introduces the concept of the marine protected area (MPA) as a resource management option. The significance of MPA is discussed for the participants to fully understand its important role in coastal resources management. Sanctuaries and reserves, the two major components of an MPA, are also discussed. The biophysical, socio-economic and practical considerations that need to be considered during the planning and implementation of MPAs are likewise discussed. Different case studies are presented to give the participants an idea on the process of establishing and managing MPAs. Lessons are drawn from the experiences of different institutions engaged in MPAs. At the end of the module, the participants are expected to formulate a conceptual MPA framework and outline the attendant management plans.

7. Coastal Development Planning. This module introduces coastal development planning as a resource management tool. It highlights the importance of multi-sectoral participation in the formulation of an integrated plan. Being multi-sectoral, it addresses the environmental, socio-economic and sociopolitical issues existing in the area to ensure that sustainable and equitable development of the coastal zone is achieved.

Additional topics can include:

• Sustainable exploitation;

• Habitat improvement and enhancement;

• Ecological relations between land and sea;

• Relationship between people and natural resources (value and attitude development towards responsible stewardship);

• Environmental legislation;

• Enforcement and compliance;

• Conflict management;

• Gender roles in resource use and management.

8.3.4. Trainers' training

Environmental education efforts should be focused on cultivating potential local resource persons who could effectively conduct ECB activities on their own and in the process disseminate information to even more members of the community. This 'trainers' training' can target community leaders and teachers.

Environmental education training for community leaders targets selected local leaders who have the capability and respect in the community to become effective local resource persons on co-management and resource management. This is done to ensure the continuity and expansion of co-management in the area beyond the programme's duration. The training is designed to equip the participants with the basics of popular education methods and to generate individual and collective action towards the implementation of environmental education activities in the community (Juinio-Menez et al., 2000).

Teachers' training workshop is a specialized training on the marine environment and on co-management for local science educators within a community. This training focuses on information rather than on the methods for conducting an environmental education training. The teachers can become catalysts in raising the environmental consciousness not only of the students but also of other teachers in the area. Major components of the training can include the state of the marine environment in the nation and locally, principles of marine ecology, fisheries resource management, integrated coastal management, and co-management. This training can enhance the knowledge and understanding of local educators regarding the marine environment and its conservation. It can also facilitate networking among fisher organizations and local educators. Laboratory exposure and field trips can enhance the lectures (Juinio-Menez et al., 2000).

Monitoring the impact of the training is crucial to sustaining the momentum created by the workshops. A questionnaire can be administered in the community to evaluate the impact of the training workshops on the community.

8.3.5. Guidelines for training

Some guidelines for training sessions and workshops in communities include:

• Schedule the training at a time and place convenient to the participants.

• Facilitators should be assigned to run the training.

• Documenters should be assigned to record the training and important results and recommendations.

• Local and outside resource persons can be assigned to discuss/facilitate some topics during the training.

• Information should be presented in an accessible and easily understood format to broad audiences to raise awareness about the aquatic environment.

• Start from what people already know; dig for indigenous knowledge and add scientific knowledge when this can complement existing knowledge in a useful way.

• Facilitate sharing of indigenous knowledge between older and younger generations or between original community residents and more recent migrants.

• To explain new ideas and concepts, look for similar situations or concepts outside fisheries but within the everyday life experience of the community.

• Choose for each subject or topic the most appropriate method or form of training and the most suitable trainer.

• Technical terms should be explained and expounded on by using simple words.

• Use both formal (training sessions, workshops, lectures) and non-formal (small groups, exchange visits, peer-to-peer discussion, plays, one-on-one contact) educational methods.

• Non-formal methods are found to be best as they permit participation and interaction and encourage personal contact between the experts and the community, between peers (such as fisher-to-fisher), and among the stakeholders themselves (Box 8.9).

• Evocative processes can be effective in encouraging active participation from the participants.

• The sharing of indigenous knowledge can play a key role in effective non-formal education programmes.

• Be creative. Games, acting and role playing can all be used in training and are fun (and, therefore, are remembered).

• Games can be used to explain resource management issues.

• Lectures alone should not be used. This is the form academically trained people are most familiar with and they will often automatically apply this method themselves. Be creative and try to think of other, more participatory ways to transfer knowledge or discuss a topic (Box 8.10).

• Use as many visuals as possible. Photos and videos add to learning.

• Realize that skill building requires practical exercise and repetition for a person to become skilful.

• Drawings, posters and slides can be very effective in meetings, training sessions and workshops for mostly illiterate people. Be aware that villagers can interpret pictures in a different way than was intended by the person who made the drawing. Posters that are going to be used repeatedly should be pre-tested for a small group of people from the target group before being reproduced and used on a larger scale.

• Whenever possible, all examples should depict local settings and situations to make the topic easier to appreciate.

• In general, we remember more of something when we have been more involved, or when more of our senses have been involved.

• We remember:

• 10% of what we read;

• 20% of what we hear;

• 30% of what we see;

• 50% of what we hear and see;

• 70% of what we say;

• 90% of what we say and do.

• Small group meetings where there is a high level of participation by the participants can be supplemented by an occasional more formal presentation.

• Ensure that all materials needed for the training are available in advance.

8.3.6. Other methods for environmental education

In addition to training, a variety of other methods can be used for education (as well as capacity building and communication) (Green, 1997; Juinio-Menez et al., 2000):

• Participatory Research. As discussed previously, an effective means of environmental education is to involve community members in activities of the REA, SEA and LIA to develop skills, utilize indigenous knowledge, and understand functions and values.

• Videos. Both outsourced and locally produced videos can be used. Outsourced videos on a variety of topics can be obtained from other external agents or projects in the country or internationally. Locally produced videos can be very effective since they address local issues with local people. Once a clear plan is developed and some rough editing tools are obtained for the computer, these videos are relatively easy to produce. Local people can often better relate by seeing themselves and their neighbours in the video. Videos can be adapted to a variety of audiences.

• Television. Usually expensive and sometimes not accessible by the community. It may be possible to obtain an outsourced video or produce a local video and request the local television station to show it. It may also be possible to interest the national and international television networks, such as CNN and BBC, in local stories which can provide good exposure to the community and the issues.

• Radio. A very effective method of communication to reach a large area if most community members have access to radios. Local radio stations can be requested to provide time for a regularly scheduled programme. The radio show can include interviews with local and outside experts, debates with stakeholders, documentaries, news, talk show where people phone in and information to stimulate discussion. Radio dramas have proven to be very effective.

• Newspapers. Local newspapers are a sure way of accessing local influential people. Newspapers may have or may be asked to develop a section on the environment. Journalists can be educated about environmental issues which will give them a greater interest in the subject. Good local stories can be provided to the national press.

• Newsletters. Newsletters can be prepared and distributed on a regular basis to inform about the programme activities, issues and upcoming events.

• Fact Sheets/Flyers. Short and simple, fact sheets and flyers can be used to provide information on a specific topic or issue.

• Comics. These can be used to disseminate information at the local level, especially to those who are illiterate. Comics must be short, be in the local language, and have a clear point relating to daily life with plenty of illustrations. Comics can be produced very cheaply and one copy can be shared by a whole family.

• Posters/Calendars/Fixed Exhibits. Very effective in the correct location. A calendar will stay on a wall all year. A colourful poster with a clear photo or illustration can deliver an important message. Fixed exhibits can be located in often-visited locations such as a town hall, school or market.

• Picture Stories. Picture stories can be presented in the form of flannel boards or flip chart drawings or some variation of these. They are illustrations of problems and solutions which can be put in sequence to tell a story and can be altered and added to in response to community feedback. Simple, colourful pictures can be very effective in helping people remember the key message of a presentation.

• Information Kits. A collection of materials on various topics organized and collected in a folder or binder. Larger information kits can be used for school education programmes and can include publications, handouts, presentation materials, posters, laboratory equipment and other materials.

• T-shirts. Sometimes useful in awareness raising and as a prize/gift for participation. They can often be a good conversation starter. Different t-shirts can be produced for different stakeholder groups and messages.

• Sponsoring Events. Local events can be sponsored to provide relevant environmental information to the general public. These can include such events as Earth Day celebrations, Coastal Clean-Up, sports competition or a village feast/celebration. Theme nights about the sea, such as an environmental concert where the fishers write and sing the songs can be effective. Other events may include plays, dramas and contests, or high profile activities such as beach clean-up or tree planting.

• Street or Village Theatre. Street or village theatre uses storytellers, theatre groups, clowns, dancers and puppets to inform people about an issue by telling a story. The presentations use imagery, music and humour to raise people's awareness of an issue that is affecting them. Local people can be encouraged to join in and play a part in the presentations. The presentations can be filmed or recorded for radio and thus made available to a wider audience.

• Issue-based Information Campaigns. Information campaigns can be launched in strategic locations to enhance the environmental awareness of the people. Depending upon the output of the information campaign, a forum can be held to strengthen collaboration among different support groups. Lectures, leaflets, photo exhibits, film/video showings and testimonials can all be utilized. If possible, networking with different support groups (e.g. international scientific communities, NGOs) should be facilitated to further strengthen the advocacy.

• Community Consultations. Community consultations are conducted in order to disseminate information, gather and validate vital information and lobby support for the project. Visual aids and resource persons can be utilized.

• School Curriculum Development. Targeted curriculum development in primary and secondary schools on such topics as coastal ecology. This will often need to be coordinated with the Department/Ministry of Education and the local school district. Curriculum modules can be prepared which include lectures, readings, laboratory and field experiments, science projects, site visits, videos, PowerPoint presentations, computer exercises and other educational materials. Teachers should be involved in the development of the curriculum module. Scholarships can be provided to students through local competitions.

• Recreational/Site Visits. Local people, government officials, government staff and others can be invited on an outing for a picnic and day at sea. Participants can snorkel and explore the coastal ecosystems. These can be good fun and provide informal education.

8.4. Capacity Development

Complementary to environmental education, there is the need to develop the capacity for individuals and organizations to effectively participate in co-management. Capacity can be defined as 'the ability of individuals and organizations or organizational units to perform functions effectively, efficiently and sustainably' (UNDP, 1998). Capacity development includes understanding what co-management is and how to organize and participate in it, communicating with other stakeholders, dealing with administrative and business matters, and participating in negotiations. Capacity is a continuing process and is the power of an individual or organization to engage, in this case, in co-management.

The objective of capacity development is not to supply a product or service but to foster the development of specific individuals and organizations (Box 8.11). Capacity development is often needed to raise an organization's performance level, which is reflected in its efficiency (minimizes costs), effectiveness (achievement of its goals) and sustainability (relevance and acquiring resources for operation). The core capacities of an organization or community consist of:

• Defining and analysing the environment or overall system;

• Identifying needs and/or key issues;

• Formulating strategies to respond to or meet needs;

• Devising or implementing actions; assembling and using resources effectively and sustainably;

• Monitoring performance, ensuring feedback and adjusting courses of action to meet objectives;

• Acquiring new knowledge and skills to meet evolving challenges.

Most capacity development efforts focus on only one or a few of these critical capacities needed by an organization, on the assumption that the

improvements brought about in these capacities will lead to improvements in the performance of the organization as a whole. This assumption is seldom tested, however. The capacity development efforts should be tested periodically in order to provide a basis for improving future capacity development efforts (Horton, 2002).

A key issue in capacity development is what is referred to as 'social capital'. It is important to recognize that the whole social community is more than the sum of its individual parts. People form relationships that fulfil a number of social needs such as communities of common interests, mutual obligation, care, concern, interest and access to information. These can be considered as networks of norms and trust which facilitate cooperation for mutual benefit. Social capital facilitates a process of learning through interaction. This social capital is critical to achieve collective action and to prosper and sustain a social, economic and institutional environment that is ready to adapt and change. The social networks can be horizontal (across the community) to give communities a sense of identify and common purpose or vertical (government to community to individuals) to broaden capacity and support.

8.4.1. Levels of capacity development

Capacity development efforts may focus on different levels. Capacity for co-management can take place at three levels:

• Individual;

• Organizational;

• System or enabling environment.

These three levels are nested within each other and there is regular interaction to form a whole. Capacity development efforts need to address challenges at various levels in the community, as well as externally.

The system or enabling environment level includes two distinct but complementary capacity development activities. First, this level includes capacity development for the broader co-management programme and associated activities at the community level. This includes developing capacity to prepare for negotiation, developing a common vision, negotiating plans and agreements, organizational representation, conflict management, and monitoring and evaluation. Second, this level also includes capacity development at the community level to support advocacy and networking for the enabling environment for co-management including policy, legal, regulatory, management and resource dimensions. The focus of this level is on the government or public sector, but may also include private companies. It has a national or regional scale and is multi-sectoral. It is to provide a political voice so that economically and socially disadvantaged user groups and communities can be considered in decisions and processes that relate directly to the resource and the well-being of the group or community.

Capacity development at the organizational level, such as a community-based fisher organization, involves several dimensions, including:

• Mission and strategy;

• Culture/structure and competencies (organizational and management values, management style, standards, organizational structure, core competencies);

• Processes (functions such as communication, planning, office management, relationships with other organizations, report writing, meeting facilitation, consensus building, research/policy development, monitoring and evaluation, performance management, financial and human resources management);

• Human resources (relationships with staff, members, management, external groups);

• Financial resources (both operating and capital required for the organization, fund raising, self-financing mechanisms);

• Information resources (media, electronic and paper resources management to support the mission and strategies of the organization);

• Infrastructure (physical assets, computer systems, telecommunications, productive work environments);

• Conflict management.

A major part of capacity development is at the individual level. This includes both members and non-members of fisher and other co-management organizations, as well as other beneficiaries of the programme. This is the most critical level as it involves the individual's capacity to function effectively and efficiently with the organization and, more broadly, with the co-management programme. Capacity development is designed according to the individual's function and relationship to the organization and the co-management programme.

Horton (2002) states:

It is often assumed that developing individual capacities will automatically lead to improved organizational capacity and performance. This is not the case. For example, there are many cases where individuals have developed skills in participatory research, but very few cases where participatory research has become institutionalized in the standard operating procedures of research or development organizations.

8.4.2. Approaches to capacity development

Capacity development cannot be 'done' by outsiders. An external agent can promote or stimulate capacity development and provide information, training and other types of support. But an external agent should not attempt to lead an organization's capacity development effort or take responsibility for it. The organization's managers and members must set goals and make decisions. Leadership must emerge from within the organization, and the organization's members must do most of the required work. However, an organization can benefit from external expertise and advice. But ultimately, the organization's own managers must be in the driver's seat (Horton, 2002).

Capacity development involves the acquisition of new knowledge and its application in the pursuit of individual and organizational goals. For this reason, learning by doing, or experimental learning, lies at the heart of capacity development (Horton, 2002).

The main tools for capacity development include one or more of the following approaches:

• Information dissemination;

• Training to develop knowledge, skills and attitudes;

• Facilitation and mentoring by an external agent;

• Networking, with the exchange of information and experiences from other people working on similar tasks, as well as through workshops, networks and communities of practice;

• Feedback, in order to promote learning from experience within an organization.

The type and amount of capacity development will depend upon the organizations' goals and the budget available for these activities. The provision of information or one-time training, while able to reach more individuals and organizations, seldom produces lasting changes in the participants' behaviour. Facilitation by an external agent is generally more effective, although it is more costly.

Capacity development is promoted by the following key factors:

• An external environment that is conducive to change;

• Top managers who are committed to provide leadership for change;

• A clear set of objectives and priorities;

• A critical mass of members involved in, and committed to, the change process;

• Awareness and understanding of the initiative;

• Open and transparent processes and decision-making;

• Adequate resources for developing capacities and implementing change;

• Adequate management of the capacity development process.

8.4.3. Strategic management

In planning and setting priorities for capacity development, there is a need to assess the factors that are limiting the organization's performance and identify those capacities that constrain performance the most. An organizational assessment is often needed to determine performance and capacity constraints and opportunities for change. Most organizations should undertake strategic management. Strategic management can be defined as an approach whereby an organization defines its overall character and mission, its longer term objectives and goals, the product/service it will provide, and the means (strategy) by which this can be achieved. Strategic management should address all dimensions of capacity at all three levels – individual, organization, system or enabling environment. This approach allows an organization to establish the desired relationship with other organizations or stakeholders within the broader co-management programme in which it functions. This requires a full and ongoing assessment of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) both externally and internally (Box 8.12). This approach should be participatory and consultative. Capacity assessments can be carried out as 'one off' types of initiatives, or they can be carried out at any one or all stages of co-management programme. For example, an organization embarking on involvement in co-management may need to develop initial capacities to carry out planning and negotiation, and other capacities later as the co-management programme matures. In all cases, emphasis would be given to utilizing existing capacities and to developing new capacities only as they are needed (UNDP, 1998).

8.4.4. Evaluation

Evaluation of the capacity development effort can serve two purposes. The first is accountability to determine if objectives have been achieved and resources used appropriately. The second is that evaluations are carried out to learn lessons that can be used to improve ongoing and future capacity development efforts (Horton, 2002).

An important aspect of capacity development is determining how the initiative can be sustained and remain relevant by responding to change. Sustainable change can be enhanced by:

• Involvement in decision-making;

• An atmosphere of mutual respect and trust;

• Building existing strengths and dimensions of capacity;

• Reward performance;

• Encourage new ideas and risk taking;

• Continual capacity development;

• Supportive leadership.

8.5. Social Communication

Successful change often depends on a variety of intangibles such as political will, trust, reputation and legitimacy. In addition, where suitable conditions exist or can be created, good communications can also be a key to bringing about change. Communications may be personal (one-to-one), inter-personal (among a few individuals) and social (when it involves social groups, such as a local community) (Borrini-Feyerabend et al., 2000).

Social communication is the on-going flow of information and dialogue between the CO and the people in the community, and among the community members themselves about co-management, the programme, issues and solutions (Borrini-Feyerabend et al., 2000). Effective social communication and information feedback mechanisms can empower and increase the involvement of community members in co-management. It provides for a better understanding of different stakeholders' perspectives and learning from different knowledge bases. For example, one objective of social communication can be to inform the community members about co-management and the need for co-management and to promote an open debate and understanding. Social communication can help community members gain ownership over the co-management programme. Borrini-Feyerabend et al. (2000) state:

They (community members) do not merely aim at 'passing on a message about an issue' but at promoting its critical understanding and appropriation in society. After all, the most important result sought by a genuine co-management initiative is not for people to 'behave' in tune with what some experts believe it is right for them, but for people to think, find agreements and act together on their own accord.

(p. 27)

The development of a social communication initiative should begin by understanding how people in the community communicate and discuss ideas and issues among themselves. It involves understanding the system of local media. This may range from word of mouth at the fish landing site or market, to call-in radio talk shows, to songs, to more formal gatherings. Social communication can take a variety of different forms and creativity is important to be effective. These forms range from one-to-one dialogue and group meetings to the use of mass media such as radio, television and Internet. It is important to avoid using a 'teaching' or 'preaching' attitude and instead to promote dialogue and open discussion of different points of view (Borrini-Feyerabend et al., 2000).

Social communication may entail different forms of communication such as informing, raising awareness and training. While these forms of communication can be interactive between the sender and receiver, they are generally carried out in a 'top-down' manner with the sender in control of the message. Interactive learning is a different form of communication which enhances common knowledge, awareness and skills by having those with different views think, discuss and act together (Borrini-Feyerabend et al., 2000).

The knowledge of how to communicate, the ability to communicate, and feeling comfortable in communicating are all skills which may need to be developed. Training in communication skills (both talking and listening) may need to be a precursor to a social communication programme. Training may need to target different groups with different communication needs, such as government officials and staff and community members.

8.5.1. Social marketing

One approach to social communication is social marketing. Social marketing is the use of the philosophy, tools and practices of commercial marketing to 'sell' a social cause, idea or behaviour change to a targeted group of individuals (Boxes 8.13 and 8.14). Social marketing can be used to accept a new behaviour, reject a potential behaviour, modify a current behaviour and/or abandon an old behaviour. The core unit of social marketing is the exchange between at least two parties. For example, the CO provides information to the target audience and the hoped for exchange is a change in behaviour, such as elimination of destructive fishing practices. The focus of social marketing is the community members. It is critical to think you know what is going on in their heads but to really find out the why and what.

The social marketing approach is a process that is very systematic and planned, with all stages of the programme clearly mapped out with objectives and behavioural targets. Steps in the process are:

• Define the problem based on analysis and community assessment;

• Identify behavioural change/actions that could eliminate/reduce the problem;

• Identify potential audience segment/target;

• Conduct root cause analysis – just ask 'why?';

• Establish goals and objectives for the programme;

• Position the intervention: product, price, place, promotion and politics;

• Deliver and monitor the intervention;

• Evaluate the programme (Kolter et al., 2002).

Among the more effective tools used in social marketing are advertising and public relations, promotions and publicity via mass media, special events, celebrity endorsements, testimonials, and advocacy campaigns. For example, a slogan or vision statement, such as 'Our Seas, Our Future!', can be adopted to convey a message and develop solidarity. Any slogan should evolve with community members rather than be chosen by outsiders.

8.5.2. Communication

Social communication can be used to mobilize community members to participate in co-management. Participatory techniques can be used to raise people's awareness, knowledge, ability and motivation to make decisions about their future. Common participatory techniques include workshops, public meetings, study tours, community exchange visits, advocacy campaigns, debates, street theatre, committees, community patrols, citizen watchdog groups, school programmes and special projects involving the community or various sectors of society (DENR et al., 2001b).

Social communication should promote internal discussion within different stakeholder groups and organizations. Discussion allows different viewpoints to be aired and discussed, trust and credibility to be created, and group cohesion to be strengthened. This can be accomplished by building on a common focus or issue and holding meetings that foster contact and trust and allow bridges to be built among members.

Social communication should be respectful of local cultural traits and norms. Any information conveyed should be truthful, fair and reasonably complete (Borrini-Feyerabend et al., 2000). Social communication should be ongoing throughout the life of the project and beyond.