Appendix 2. GIS, health, and epidemiology: an annotated resource guide: International Development Research Centre

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Appendix 2. GIS, health, and epidemiology: an annotated resource guide

Document(s) 10 of 19

Steven Reader

This guide is divided into four sections: GIS, health, and epidemiology references; GIS books, journals, and magazines; GIS software; and GIS Internet resources. This guide is not intended to be comprehensive but may provide some useful starting points for anyone interested in applying GIS to the health and epidemiology fields.

GIS, Health, and Epidemiology: Selected References

Note: These references are taken from a list compiled by Wayne Hall at St. Marys University, Halifax, Canada. Wayne can be reached at b_hall@bass.stmarys.ca.

Beck, L.R. et al. 1994. Remote sensing as a landscape epidemiologic tool to identify villages at high risk for malaria transmission. American Journal of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene, 51(3), 271-280.

A landscape approach using remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) technologies was developed to discriminate between villages at high and low risk for malaria transmission, as defined by adult Anopheles albimanus abundance. Satellite data for an area in southern Chiapas, Mexico were digitally processed to generate a map of landscape elements. The GIS processes were used to determine the proportion of mapped landscape elements surrounding 40 villages where A. albimanus abundance data had been collected.

The relationships between vector abundance and landscape element proportions were investigated using stepwise discriminant analysis and stepwise linear regression. Both analyses indicated that the most important landscape elements in terms of explaining vector abundance were transitional swamp and unmanaged pasture. (Abstract truncated.)

Gesler, W. 1986. The uses of spatial analysis in medical geography: a review. Social Science & Medicine, 23(10), 963-973.

This paper is a review of how geographers and others have used spatial analysis to study disease and health care delivery patterns. Point, line, area, and surface patterns, as well as map comparisons and relative spaces are discussed. Problems encountered in applying spatial analytic techniques in medical geography are pointed out. The paper is intended to stimulate discussion about where medical geography can and should go in this area of study. Point pattern techniques include standard distance, standard deviational ellipses, gradient analysis and space and space-time clustering. Line methods include random walks, vectors and graph theory or network analysis. Under areas, location quotients, standardized mortality ratios, Poisson probabilities, space and space-time clustering, autocorrelation measures, and hierarchical clustering are discussed. Surface techniques mentioned are isolines and trend surfaces.

For map comparisons, Lorenz curves, coefficients of areal correspondence, and correlation coefficients have been used. Case-control matching, acquaintance networks, multidimensional scaling, and cluster analysis are examples of methods that are based on relative or nonmetric spaces. The review gives rise to the discussion of several general points: problems encountered in spatial analysis, theory building and verification, the appropriate role of technique and computer use. Some suggestions are made for further use of spatial analytic techniques in medical geography: Monte Carlo simulation of point patterns, network analysis to study referral systems and health care for pastoralists, GIS to assess environmental risk, difference mapping for disease and risk factor map comparisons, and multidimensional scaling to measure social distance.

Jacoby, I. 1991. Geographic distribution of physician manpower: the GMENAC (Graduate Medical Education National Advisory Committee) legacy. Journal of Rural Health, 7(4 Suppl), 427-436.

The Graduate Medical Education National Advisory Committee (GMENAC) projected the need for and supply of physicians and other providers, recommended time and access standards for health care services, and developed guidelines for the geographic distribution of physicians. Since this study, analysts have given scant attention to national problems of physician geographic distribution. The issue deserves additional scrutiny in light of the current continuing problems of underservice in rural areas. The emergence of GIS offers a unique opportunity to acquire data on provider distribution and provide a framework for developing and testing redistribution policy.

Kitron, U. et al. 1994. Geographic information system in malaria surveillance: mosquito breeding and imported cases in Israel, 1992. American Journal of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene, 50(5), 550-556.

Although a significant resurgence of malaria in Israel is unlikely at present, the risk for a localized outbreak of malaria cases due to infection of local anopheline mosquitoes by imported cases does exist. A national computerized surveillance system of breeding sites of Anopheles mosquitoes and imported malaria cases was established in 1992 using a GIS. Distances between population centers and breeding sites were calculated, and maps associating epidemiologic and entomologic data were generated. Risk of malaria transmission was assessed with consideration of vectorial capacity and flight range of each Anopheles species. The GIS-based surveillance system ensures that if a localized outbreak does occur, it will be associated rapidly with a likely breeding site, a specific Anopheles vector, and a probable human source, so that prompt control measures can be most efficiently targeted. This cost-effective GIS-based surveillance system can be expanded and adapted for countries with indigenous malaria transmission.

Lam, N.S. 1986. Geographical patterns of cancer mortality in China. Social Science & Medicine, 23(3), 241-247.

This research note discusses the China cancer mortality data and the methodological problems involved in spatial analysis of these data. Some of the research findings produced by mapping and analyses of the cancer data at the provincial level are also summarized. The two most common cancers in China, stomach and esophagus, were found to have no significant correlation with some selected physical variables and population density, suggesting the need to examine other socioeconomic variables such as dietary habit.

The study also suggests that the type of diet which may be responsible for these two cancers could be very different from each others. Colon and rectum, leukemia, and breast cancers were found to have very high positive spatial autocorrelation and high correlation with population density — a result contrary to previous findings in the West. Future research using a geographic information system approach and county data is suggested.

Malone, J.B. et al. 1992. Use of LANDSAT MSS imagery and soil type in a geographic information system to assess site-specific risk of fascioliasis on Red River Basin farms in Louisiana. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 653, 389-397.

A GIS was constructed in an ERDAS environment using maps of soil types from the USDA Soil Conservation Service, LANDSAT satellite multispectral scanner data (MSS), boundaries for 25 study farms, and slope and hydrologic features shown in a two-quadrangle (USGS, 7.5') area in the Red River Basin near Alexandria, Louisiana. Fecal sedimentation examinations were done in the fall of 1989, spring of 1990, and fall and winter of 1990-1991 on 10-16 random samples per herd. Fecal egg shedding rates for F. hepatica ranged from 10-100% prevalence and 0.3-21.7 eggs per 2 g of feces (EP2G). For Paramphistomum spp., a rumen fluke also transmitted by F. bulimoides but not affected by flukicides, egg shedding rates ranged from 10-91% prevalence and 0.1-42.8 EP2G.

Soil types present ranged from sandy loams to hydric, occasionally flooded clays. Herd Paramphistomum spp. egg shedding rates increased with the proportion of hydric clays present, adjusted for slope and major hydrologic features. F. hepatica infection intensity followed a similar trend, but was complicated by differing treatment practices. Results suggest that earth observation satellite data and soil maps can be used, with an existing climate forecast based on the Thornthwaite water budget, to develop a second generation model that accounts for both regional climate variation and site-specific differences in fascioliasis risk based on soils prone to snail habitat.

Richards, F.O., Jr. 1993. Use of geographic information systems in control programs for onchocerciasis in Guatemala. Bulletin of the Pan American Health Organization, 27(1), 52-55.

No abstract.

Rogers, D.J. and Williams, B.G. 1993. Monitoring trypanosomiasis in space and time. Parasitology, 106 Suppl., S77-92.

The paper examines the possible contributions to be made by GIS to studies on human and animal trypanosomiasis in Africa. The epidemiological characteristics of trypanosomiasis are reviewed in the light of the formula for the basic reproductive rate or number of vector-borne diseases. The paper then describes how important biological characteristics of the vectors of trypanosomiasis in West Africa may be monitored using data from the NOAA series of meteorological satellites. This will lead to an understanding of the spatial distribution of both vectors and disease. An alternative, statistical approach to understanding the spatial distribution of tsetse, based on linear discriminant analysis, is illustrated with the example of Glossina morsitans in Kenya, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe.

In the case of Zimbabwe, a single climatic variable, the maximum of the mean monthly temperature, correctly predicts the prerinderpest distribution of tsetse over 82% of the country; additional climatic and vegetation variables do not improve significantly on this figure. In the cases of Kenya and Tanzania, however, another variable, the maximum of the mean monthly Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, is the single most important variable, giving correct predictions over 69% of the area; the other climatic and vegetation variables improve this to 82% overall. Such statistical analyses can guide fieldwork toward the correct biological interpretation of the distributional limits of vectors and may also be used to make predictions about the impact of global change on vector ranges.

Examples are given of the areas of Zimbabwe which would become climatically suitable for tsetse given mean temperature increases of 1, 2 and 3°C. Five possible causes for sleeping sickness outbreaks are given, illustrated by the analysis of field data or from the output of mathematical models. One cause is abiotic (variation in rainfall), three are biotic (variation in vectorial potential, host immunity, or parasite virulence), and one is historical (the impact of explorers, colonizers and dictators). The implications for disease monitoring, in order to anticipate sleeping sickness outbreaks, are briefly discussed.

It is concluded that present data are inadequate to distinguish between these hypotheses. The idea that sleeping sickness outbreaks are periodic (i.e., cyclical) is only barely supported by hard data. Hence it is even difficult to conclude whether the major cause of sleeping sickness outbreaks is biotic (which, in model situations, tends to produce cyclical epidemics) or abiotic. (Abstract truncated.)

Sanson, R.L.; Pfeiffer, D.U.; Morris, R.S. 1991 Geographic information systems: their application in animal disease control. Review of Science and Technology, 10(1), 179-195.

GIS are computerized information systems that allow for the capture, storage, manipulation, analysis, display, and reporting of geographically referenced data. They have been used in recent years for a wide variety of purposes, including town planning and environmental resource management. The technology has many features which make it ideal for use in animal disease control, including the ability to store information relating to demographic and causal factors and disease incidence on a geographic background, and a variety of spatial analysis functions. A number of possible veterinary applications are suggested, and three examples of the use of GIS in New Zealand are discussed.

Stallones, L.; Nuckols, J.R.; Berry, J.K. 1992 Surveillance around hazardous waste sites: geographic information systems and reproductive outcomes. Environmental Research, 59(1), 81-92.

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the potential for integrating surveillance techniques in reproductive epidemiology with GIS technology to identify populations at risk around hazardous waste sites. Environmental epidemiologic studies have had problems with estimating or measuring exposures to individuals, and of detecting effects when the exposure is low, but continuous. In addition, exposures around hazardous waste sites are complex and frequently involve chemical mixtures.

The birth weight of human babies has been reported to be sensitive to many environmental influences. Birth weight can be analyzed as a continuous variable or as a dichotomous one using the standard cutpoint of 2500 g or less to indicate low birth weight. It has the potential to be a powerful surveillance tool since exposures to the fetus reflect maternal and paternal exposures. The advent of recent environmental regulations pertaining to hazardous waste sites has greatly increased the availability of environmental data for many sites. The major problem with incorporating these data into epidemiologic studies has been with the logistics of data management and analysis. Computer-assisted GIS hold promise in providing capabilities needed to address the data management and analysis requirements for effective epidemiologic studies around hazardous waste sites.

Walter, S.D. 1993 Visual and statistical assessment of spatial clustering in mapped data. Statistics in Medicine, 12(14), 1275-1291.

Maps have seen increasing use to examine regional variation in health, but there has been little research on the visual perception of spatial patterns in mapped data. Theories of graphic perception suggest that the interpretation of maps is complex relative to other types of graphic material. This paper describes an experiment in which observers assessed a series of maps with respect to their amount of clustering. Maps with various types of spatial pattern were visually distinguishable; comparisons between variants of the same map, however, using different shading and plotting symbols indicated that the method of data representation also had a strong effect on visual perception. There was some evidence for a learning effect in complex maps. The relationship between the visual assessments and a statistical measure of spatial autocorrelation was significant but imperfect.

Wartenberg, D. 1992. Screening for lead exposure using a geographic information system. Environmental Research, 59(2), 310-317.

Screening programs for lead overexposure typically target high-risk populations by identifying regions with common risk markers (older housing, poverty, etc.). Although more useful than untargeted screening programs, targeted programs are limited by the geographic resolution of the risk-factor information. A GIS can make screening programs more effective and more cost-efficient by mapping cases of overexposure, identifying high-incidence neighbourhoods warranting screening, and validating risk-factor-based prediction rules.

Washino, R.K.; Wood, B.L. 1994. Application of remote sensing to arthropod vector surveillance and control. American Journal of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene, 50(6 Suppl), 134-144.

A need exists to further develop new technologies, such as remote sensing and GIS analysis, for estimating arthropod vector abundance in aquatic habitats and predicting adult vector population outbreaks. A brief overview of remote sensing technology in vector surveillance and control is presented, and suggestions are made on future research opportunities in light of current and proposed remote sensing systems.

GIS Books, Journals, and Magazines

Books

Antenucci J. et al., 1991. Geographic Information Systems: A Guide to the Technology. Van Nostrand Reinhold. ISBN 0-442-00756-6.

Aronoff S. 1991. Geographic Information Systems: a Management Perspective. WDL Publications. ISBN 0-921804-91-1.
An excellent introduction to the technology. I use this as the textbook for the introductory GIS course I teach at undergraduate geography level.

Belward A.S.; Valanzuela, C.R. (ed.). 1991. Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Systems for Resource Management in Developing Countries. Kluwer Academic Press, The Hague, Netherlands. ISBN 0-7923-1268-6.

Berry J.K., 1993. Beyond Mapping: Concepts, Algorithms, and Issues in GIS. GIS World. ISBN 0-9625063-2-6.

Burrough P.A., 1986. Principles of Geographical Information Systems for Land Resources Assessment. Oxford University Press, New York, NY, USA. ISBN 0-89291-175-1.
A more advanced book which I have used as a text in the second GIS course I teach at undergraduate level. This book is more about GIS principles than land resource assessment so do not be dissuaded by the title.

Fotheringham S.; Rogerson, P. (ed.). 1994. Spatial Analysis and GIS. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 0-7484-0104-0.

Goodchild, M.; Parks, B.; Steyaert, L. (ed.). 1993. Environmental Modelling with GIS. Oxford University Press, New York, NY, USA. ISBN 0-19-508007-6.

Goodchild, M.; Gopal, S. (ed.). 1989. The Accuracy of Spatial Databases. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 0-85066-847-6.
Some chapters are very technical but this book is an excellent compilation of the issues surrounding error in GIS.

Huxhold, W.E. 1991. An Introduction to Urban Geographic Information Systems. Oxford University Press, New York, NY, USA. ISBN 0-19-506533-4.
Another good introduction to the technology but slanted towards urban applications.

Laurini, R.; Thompson, D. 1992. Fundamentals of Spatial Information Systems. Academic Press, New York, NY, USA. ISBN 0-12-438380-7.
Coverage of technical software issues is wide-ranging but is rather awkward reading at first. Recommend reading another introductory text before reading this one.

Maguire, D.J.; Goodchild, M.; Rhind, D. (ed.). 1991. Geographical Information Systems: Principles and Applications. Longman Scientific & Technical, (two volumes). ISBN 0-582-05661-6.
Perhaps the most extensive and definitive GIS book.

Rhind, D.; Raper, J.; Mounsey, H. (ed.). 1992. Understanding Geographic Information Systems. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 0-85066-774-5.

Star, J.; Estes, J.E. 1990. Geographic Information Systems: An Introduction. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA. ISBN 0-13-351123-5.
As a first book to read on GIS, this is adequate but I prefer Aronoff.

Tomlin, D. 1990. Geographic Information Systems and Cartographic Modeling. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA. ISBN 0-13-350927-3.
Another adequate first read on GIS.

Journals and Magazines

Cartography and Geographic Information Systems, since 1973 (formerly The American Cartographer), quarterly, American Congress on Surveying and Mapping. ISSN 1050-9844.

Computers and Geosciences: An International Journal, since 1974, 8 issues per year, Pergamon Press. ISSN 0098-3004.

Geographical Systems: The International Journal of Geographical Information, Analysis, Theory, and Decision, since 1994, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers.

GeoInfo Systems, since 1991, 10 issues per year, Aster Publishing Co.

Geomatica (former CISM/ACSGS Journal), since 1945, quarterly, Canadian Institute of Geomatics. ISSN 1195-1036.

GIM: International Journal for Surveying, Mapping, and Applied GIS, since 1987, bimonthly, GITC. ISSN 0928-1436.

GIS Asia/Pacific, since 1985, bimonthly, GIS World Inc.

GIS Europe: Europe's Geographic Information Systems Magazine, since 1992, 10 issues per year, Longman Group (Longman Geoinformation). ISSN 0926-3403.

GIS World, since 1988, 10 issues per year, GIS World Inc. ISSN 0897-5507.

International Journal of Geographical Information Systems, since 1986, bimonthly, Taylor and Francis. ISSN 0143-1161.

Journal of Urban and Regional Information Systems, Urban and Regional Information Systems Association.

Mapping Awareness (formerly Mapping Awareness and Integrated Spatial Information Systems: in the United Kingdom and Ireland), since 1987, 10 issues per year, Longman Group Inc. ISSN 0954-7126.

Surveying and Land Information Systems, since 1940, quarterly, American Congress on Surveying and Mapping. ISSN 0039-6273.

SW: Journal for Land Survey, Hydrographic Survey and Land Information Management, since 1993, bimonthly, GITC, ISSN 0-927-7900.

GIS Software

This is a selected list of GIS software packages with contact information. Given the rapidly changing nature of GIS software in terms of price and function, no attempt has been made to describe and/or compare these packages. The information given here is based on the "GIS Package List" maintained by Oliver Weatherbee. Weatherbee's list is more comprehensive than the information given here and includes descriptions of the packages and reviewer comments. It can be obtained through the internet at http://www.laum.uni-hannover.de. The reader is also referred to the vendors directly for their latest information.

This author, Steven Reader, accepts no responsibility for any errors in this list, nor endorses any of the products listed in any way.

Name: ARC/INFO, pcARC/Info, ArcCAD, ArcView
Type: Commercial
Operating Systems: UNIX, DOS and Windows
Company: Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. (ESRI)
380 New York Street
Redlands, CA, USA 92373
Tel: 909 793 2853
Fax: 909 793 2853

Name: ATLAS-GIS
Type: Commercial
Operating Systems: DOS and Windows
Company: Strategic Mapping, Inc.
4030 Moorpark Ave, Suite 250
San Jose, CA, USA 95117
Tel: 408 985 7400
Fax: 408 985 0859

Name: CARIS
Type: Commercial
Operating Systems: UNIX, Windows
Company: Universal Systems Ltd
270 Rookwood Avenue
PO Box 3391, Station B
Fredericton, NB, Canada
Tel: 506 458 8533
Fax: 506 459 3849

Name: CISIG
Special Note: A low-cost GIS that is distibuted with the digitizing package ROOTS. Lower cost for developing countries (US$200).
Operating Systems: DOS (?)
Company: GIS Services
Conservation Planning and Technical Cooperation
Conservation International
1015 18th Street, NW, Suite 1000
Washington, DC, USA 20036
Tel: 202 429 5660
Fax: 202 887 0193

Name: GENAMAP
Type: Commercial
Operating Systems: UNIX
Company: Genasys II Pty. Ltd
33 Berry Street, 13th Level
N. Sydney, New South Wales, Australia 2060
Tel: 61 2 954 0022
Fax: 61 2 954 9930

Name: GRASS
Type: Public Domain (freeware)
Operating Systems: UNIX (Mac under development)
FTP site: moon.cecer.army.mil (129.229.20.254) in /grass directory

Name: IDRISI
Type: Commercial (low cost)
Operating Systems: DOS (Windows version due May, 1995)
Company: Graduate School of Geography
Clark University
950 Main St
Worcester, MA, USA 01610
Tel: 508 793 7526
Fax: 508 793 8842

Name: ILWIS
Type: Commercial
Operating Systems: DOS (?)
Company: ILWIS
International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences
350, Boulevard 1945
PO Box 6
7500 AA Enschede, The Netherlands
Tel: 31 53 874337
Fax: 31 53 874484

Name: Intergraph MGE
Type: Commercial
Operating Systems: UNIX, Macintosh and Windows NT
Company: Intergraph Corp
Mapping Sciences Division
Huntsville, AL, USA 35894
Tel: 205 730 2700

Name: MAPGRAFIX
Type: Commercial
Operating Systems: Macintosh
Company: ComGrafix, Inc.
620 E Street
Clearwater, FL, USA 34616
Phone: 813 443 6807
Fax: 813 443 7585

Name: MAPINFO
Type: Commercial
Operating Systems: UNIX, Macintosh and Windows
Company: MapInfo Corp
One Global View
Troy, NY, USA 12180
Tel: 518 285 6000
Fax: 518 285 6060

Name: MOSS
Type: Public Domain: PC version via FTP, UNIX version US$500
Operating Systems: DOS, UNIX. (DOS version is several revs. behind UNIX and no longer updated)
FTP: (DOS version only) ftp.csn.org (128.138.213.21) in /cogs/moss
Company: Bureau of Land Management Service Center
Denver Federal Center
Denver, CO, USA 80225

Name: OzGIS
Special note: This package can be obtained as shareware by FTP for demonstrationpurposes. Actual cost of software is approx. US$500
Operating Systems: DOS and Windows
FTP: ftp.cica.indiana.edu in /pub/pc/win3/misc.
Company: The Clever Company
QMDD Box 6108
Queanbeyan, Australia 2620

Name: pMAP
Type: Commercial
Operating Systems: DOS
Company: Spatial Information Systems, Inc.
19 Old Town Square
Fort Collins, CO, USA 80524
Tel: 303 490 2155
Fax: 303 482 0251

Name: SPANS
Type: Commercial
Operating Systems: UNIX, DOS and OS/2
Company: Intera TYDAC Technologies Inc.
2 Gurdwara Road, Suite 210
Nepean, ON, Canada K2E 1A2
Tel: 613 226 5525
Fax: 613 226 3819

Name: WINGIS
Type: Commercial
Operating Systems: Windows/Windows NT
Company: PROGIS w.h.m. G.m.b.H.
Italienerstr. 3, A-9500
Villach, Austria
Tel: 42 42 26332

GIS Internet Resources

The global computer network known as the Internet is rapidly becoming a major resource for GIS information, data, software, and expertise. The list of sites below is a selection intended to provide starting points for exploring GIS resources on the Internet. These resources are growing daily and should be monitored periodically. No attempt is made here to explain the different modes of access of these resources. The reader is referred to any introductory book on the Internet for this information.

Useful World Wide Web (WWW) Servers All these sites are useful starting points for GIS resource exploration on the WWW.

http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk — University of Edinburgh, Scotland
http://info.er.usgs.gov — United States Geological Survey
http://www.laum.uni-hannover.de — University of Hannover, Germany
http://www.tis.psu.edu — Penn State University, USA
http://www.iko.unit.no — Norwegian Institute of Technology
http://deathstar.rutgers.edu — Rutgers University, USA
http://www.ncgia.ucsb.edu — National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis, USA

All the above sites contain pointers to other GIS-oriented sites. To get a fairly comprehensive list of GIS-oriented WWW home pages, use anonymous ftp to retrieve the following:

ftp://gis.queensu.ca/pub/gis/docs/gissites.txt — Michael McDermott's list

A GIS frequently-asked-questions (FAQ) is maintained at the following location:

http://www.census.gov — United States Bureau of the Census

and is obtainable through anonymous ftp from abraxas.adelphi.edu in /pub/gis/FAQ.

Steven Reader is with the Department of Geography, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.

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