Document(s) 7 of 10

• Illustrations
• Line drawings
• Photographs
• Tables
• Lists

Tables and lists are included with graphics because they are visually different from straight text. Graphics includes both line illustrations — charts of various kinds, maps, drawings, and cartoons — and photographs.

Table versus illustration
Although some material might appear as either a table or chart, one or the other maybe a better choice: is the intention to give exact values or to show trends? Use a table in the first case and a chart in the second.

ILLUSTRATIONS

Definition

• Line drawings — graphics that are made up of solid black or solid white with no grays; and
• Halftones — photographs and drawings that have shades of grey in them. Colour photographs, which are very rare in IDRC publications, are a special case of halftones.

Guidelines for IDRC books

Example

A schematic of a machine is usually more effective than a photo. Unneeded detail can be omitted from a drawing but is kept in a photo.

Numbering
Use consecutive Arabic numerals through each paper (for "proceedings-style" publications) or through the whole book, including appendices, for "single-author" books. In scientific publications, the abbreviation "Fig." will precede the Arabic numeral in the caption. In more popular books, the full form ("Figure") is used. Text references to illustrations must duplicate the numbering style used in the caption.

Illustration size

Illustrations need not be full text width if this will result in an unnecessarily "open" figure.

LINE DRAWINGS

Type size

Upper- and lower-case letters are easier to read than capital letters at these sizes. Letters must be well spaced and not too narrow.

Space should be left around a decimal point.

Styles of line drawings

The type of statistical chart chosen will depend on the point to be made. Some data can be expressed in several forms but not all are suitable.

Bar chart
Bar charts show trends or compare quantities. The bars can contain a number of different elements distinguished by shading. It is possible to "stack" elements within bars or to have several bars for each item. The bars represent discontinuous items — for example, the provinces of Canada.

Line chart
Line charts are used to show variation in one "dimension" over variation in another. Both dimensions must be continuous — for example, growth in height over age. One or both axes can be on a logarithmic scale.

 Pie chart
A pie chart is used to show proportional relationships. Keep the number of "slices" to a minimum because the larger the number, the harder it is to compare the slices. Avoid "exploded" or three-dimensional pies as these are harder to read.

Scatter diagram
Scatter diagrams show all data points plotted on x–y axes to show trends or patterns. Various elements can be distinguished by using different graphic shapes for the points.

Organizational chart
Organization charts show the hierarchy in an organization or project. Elements are arranged so that relationships become apparent.

 Flow chart
Flow charts are similar to organizational charts in that they are a series of boxes that have serial relationships to each other. They can show movement over time or over location. The "movement" is usually left-to-right or top-to-bottom.

Maps
All maps should have a north arrow and a scale. The scale should be in a bar form so that it changes with the scale of the map during reduction or enlargement. In IDRC publications, maps can be a source of difficulty and problems. If areas where the borders or sovereignty are in doubt, perhaps the map should be deleted. If the map is essential, however, add a disclaimer at the beginning of the book:

"The boundaries and names shown on maps in this publication do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the International Development Research Centre."

Miscellaneous points

Axis ticks
On graphs, not all the axis ticks need to be labeled.

Comparison graphs
If two or more graphs are to be compared, they should be the same scale after reduction. They should have the same style of labeling.

Extraneous material
Keep illustrations free of extraneous material.

Often all data need not be used. Representative data will put the point across without confusing the reader with exceptions to the main point.

Explanatory notes should be part of the title.

Familiar versus unfamiliar
Select conventional arrangements for graphs; a familiar arrangement is easier for the reader to understand than an unfamiliar one.

Simplicity is the key for any visual aid.

Grid lines
Reduce grids to ticks on the coordinates. Precise points rarely need to be computed from the graph; only when they do should complete grids be used. Usually if the precise values are needed, a table would be more suitable than a graph.

If scaling from the zero point wastes much space, adjust the coordinates to compensate; for example, use broken axes.

Keys
Avoid labeling individual lines in graphs, this tends to produce clutter and make the graph hard to read (it is also harder to produce a second language version if this becomes necessary). Instead, group line labels as a key at a convenient spot in the figure and ensure that the lines are distinguished by different forms (for example, solid, broken, and dotted lines) and markers (circles, squares, and diamonds that are open or closed).

However, this too may produce clutter and either the labeling should be included in the figure caption or the figure should be split into two graphs.

In a line drawing, for example of a forest structure, the labeling of individual items should be simplified (for example, as A, B, and C) and included in the figure caption.

Translation
In illustrations that will be translated, a key rather than labels on individual lines makes relabeling easier.

Line weight
For a scatter diagram, the scatter of the points is usually more important than the regression line, and the points should be made relatively heavier than the line to emphasize them.

In most other graphs, the "trend" line is more important than the points, and the points should be given less prominence.

Grouped lines tends to emphasize the general shape, and a group of curves need not be drawn with such heavy lines as a single curve.

Reduction
Reduction of line drawings helps minimize minor defects and unevenness of lines; however, reduction by more than two or three times is undesirable.

After reduction, open and closed symbols should still be distinguishable. Half-filled symbols are particularly difficult to distinguish.

Solid or open symbols of different shapes help solve the problem of the too-great contrast between open and solid symbols of the same shape.

Scales
Give any scales (for example, on a map) in bar form so that they change with the scale of the drawing during reduction or enlargement.

Significant digits
Keep number of digits to a level consistent with the style of illustration (and available space) rather than with the degree of accuracy allowed by the original data; essentially meaningless zeros should be omitted from a graph.

Forms as illustration

PHOTOGRAPHS

Selection

Colour halftones are rarely used in IDRC's books.

Miscellaneous points

Alignment
When cropping photographs, be alert to verticals such as the sides of buildings. You can easily give an unbalanced feeling to a photograph if you use one side of the original photograph and do not crop in such a way as to restore any vertical elements in the photograph — they may have been distorted in taking the photographs — to parallel the sides of the final print.

Final dimensions
Note the final dimensions exactly and approximate reduction/magnification as a percentage of the original size.

Labeling
Each figure should be identified with the author's name and figure number. Preferably this should be done with a sticky label on the back of the photograph or on the mounting.

Any labeling to appear on the photograph in the printed book should be on an overlay and not glued directly on the surface of the photograph.

Mounting
Photos should be mounted on white cardboard or heavy paper with the cropping marked neatly on this. Do not use rubber cement to mount photographs.

Scale bar
In photographs with a scale (for example, photomicrograph or electron micrograph), any change from the original size will alter any magnification stated in the caption. Therefore, put the scale directly on the photograph.

Submission
Halftones must be kept flat. Bends or cracks on the surface will reproduce. Pressure marks from pins, staples, paper clips, or writing on the back of the photograph also mar the reproduction.

Superfluous material
Crop out any unnecessary areas on the print to lessen the degree of reduction.

Never put crop marks directly on the photograph: put them on the mounting board or on a tissue overlay.

TABLES

Rules for IDRC tables

Table title
Table titles are centred and have a final period. Only the first word and proper nouns and adjectives are capitalized.

Each table title should be terse and to the point. It should include Contents, Agent, Place, and Time. Units are not usually given in the title.

If a full statement of the contents of a table will make the title too long, use a brief title and put the detail in a footnote. If you need four lines for the title, it is probably too long.

Dates showing the period that the data cover should always appear at the end of the title. A dash between dates implies the presence of data for the years stated and the intervening years: do not include inclusive in the title. If noncalendar years are used, this should be stated in the title or in a footnote.

Rules
All rules (often called "lines") are hairlines except the top rule which is a thick rule; never use vertical rules except for "double-across" tables, then use a double hairline; keep internal rules to a minimum; there is no rule at the bottom of the page on a table that runs on to another page (see Run-on tables).

Example
Note: We are unable to illustrate the use of a double hairline in this medium, or show horizontal lines without the vertical ones. Please follow the description provided; the examples don't alway match, i.e., do as we say, not as we do.

 

"Double-across" table.
Year	Scale	Area of LYD lesion (%)	Year	Scale	Area of LYD lesion (%)
1992	1 3 5 7 9	1-5 6-10 11-25 26-50 50-100	1993	1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10	1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100

Rules (lines) have three uses in a table:

• They break up a table into its component parts;
• They separate the table from the text; and
• They show the relationships between parts of the box head where there is more than one tier of headings.

 Headings are separated from subheadings below by a rule — called a straddle rule — that shows relationships between headings and subheadings.

Put the units of measure in the box head, never below the rule, if the units apply to the whole column.

Abbreviations
Use only well-known abbreviations (follow IDRC style). Do not use No. or # for "number" except for an identification number or if it is unavoidable, in which case use No. "Number of" is rarely necessary.

If unusual abbreviations must be used, they should be defined in a footnote or in a table note (see also "Source, note, and footnotes").

Stub column
The stub is the first (left-hand) column in the table.

Two or more items may be combined in the stub column:

Example

 

Location and year treated

Snuff Mountain (1960) Demmit (1959)

In tables that are read across the page, the units may be in the stub column.

Example

 

Characteristic

Dbh (cm) Total height (m) Crown length (m) Crown width (m) Total age (years)

Entries and subentries: The items may be grouped within the column to distinguish between different levels in the stub column. This can be done in one of three ways.

• The main entry can be in a different type face (bold or italic);
• It can be centred; or
• The subentries can be indented.

 

Pesticide	1987
Deltamethrin  Pure EC  Mixed with organophosphates  Fenvalerate  Pure EC  Mixed with organophosphates	980 318   492 203

Data columns
Data columns make up the body of the table. Usually they are figures, but they may be words.

Do not mix words and figures within one column.

Derived columns: Do not include columns of data that can be derived easily from data in other columns — this often includes totals.

Percentage columns: Put percentages, normally, to the right of the data to which they refer. For percentages of bottom totals, a single rule and side heading are used.

Text columns: In tables that have columns of text, if the text runs on to a second line, indent the subsequent lines.

If the columns are narrow, no indent is used on the run-on lines and space is added between entries.

Total columns: The normal positions for total columns are right-hand side and bottom. For emphasis, you can put them on the left-hand side and top. Bottom-and-left or top-and-right totals should not be used. Total columns may be omitted as they constitute "derived data."

Source, note, and footnotes
Where the source of the material must be given, use the footnote form but without a footnote letter.

General comments may be designated as "Note." If there are many abbreviations in the table, they are best collected as one note rather than footnoting each separately. See format for defining abbreviations in example below.

Footnotes are indicated by superscript, lower-case, Roman letters; they are consecutive from top left to bottom right. Footnotes are set one point size smaller than the table.

Footnotes are used to give more complete explanations of specific items in the title or the body of the table.

Sequence of source, note, and footnotes: Note come after source and precedes the footnotes at the bottom of the table.

Example

Source: Jeyaratnam et al. (1986, 1987).

Note: ACHase, acetylcholinesterase.

^a Sample size is given in parentheses.

Table layout

Do this by

• Exploiting trends in the data and putting the principal comparisons within columns;
• Reducing the number of significant digits to a minimum;
• Omitting nonessential data such as laboratory numbers; and
• Substituting text references, or table footnotes, for columns with only a few data values or columns that do not show significant variations.

Miscellaneous points

Leading zeros
In columns containing decimals and whole numbers, always have a numeral, or zero, before the decimal.

Example

0.217

3.214

0.324

0.600

• nr and na — for not recorded and not available or not applicable (and define in a footnote);
• 0 for zero values; and
• a dash for unknown or where the other three are unsuitable.

Run-on tables
Tables that continue on a second page have "(continued)" at the bottom of the first page (flush right and in italic) and "Table N continued." replaces the title above the continuation of the table or "Table N concluded." replaces the title above the last part of the table.

The box head is repeated on the second and subsequent pages.

Series of tables
The layout of a series of tables should be similar.

If several tables are used to present the same type of data from several studies, use exactly the same layout and spacing.

Similarly, the titles should have the same format but the differences should be emphasized by putting them early in the title.

Table size
Tables are better set up full width of the text although it is not necessary to do this — particularly if the text column is wide and the table contains only a few columns of numbers.

Small tables are easiest for the reader to grasp and can be fitted into the layout near the text discussion. Large tables should be split up whenever the data thus separated need not be compared in detail.

Recast (edit) tables to fit across the page so that the reader does not have to turn the book sideways.

LISTS

Example

Equilibrium moisture content of samples taken elsewhere the same day were aspen litter, 6%; pine litter, 8%; duff (2.5–50 cm deep), 60%; and live pine foliage, 00%.

Numerical list

Example

In developing a bulleted list you might pass through four stages:

• First, write the text in sentence form;
• Second, number the various steps;
• Third, insert bullets; and
• Fourth, change the numbers to words.

Bulleted list

• Is the list a set of separate sentences, as here? In that case, it follows a period.
• Does the list "read-on" from the previous text? In that case, it follows a colon or no punctuation.

• The initial word is capitalized.
• Each item ends with a period unless the items are not complete sentences, in which case semicolons are used — never commas — except the last which is followed by a period.
• "And" or "or" before the final bullet (but attached to the penultimate statement) is optional.
• Each statement must be in a parallel form — this set is all full sentences.
  Example
  • Capitalize all initial words;
  • End items with a period or semicolon;
  • Use "and" or "or" before the final bullet as appropriate; and
  • Use parallel form for all statements.

Document(s) 7 of 10